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The rapidly constructed Anak Krakatau volcano developed in the NE of the caldera basin formed by the 1883 Krakatau caldera eruption 9, 10, 11, 12. fine-dashed line, Williams et al., 2019 coarse-dashed line, Walter et al., 2019) and this study (solid line). B– E show the failure plane interpretations from previous published works (e.g. Faults appeared on the northern flank of Anak Krakatau from with fumarole deposits appearing from and aligning to the eventual trace of the failure plain. E Sentinel-2 true-colour image () of Anak Krakatau pre-collapse overlain with (i) position of faulting on the northern flank noticed from until the flank collapse and (ii) potential fumarole activity in this time, based upon Sentinel-2 true-colour images 5 (Supplementary 3). The summit began as two vents in 2008, migrated to a northern location by 2011 where it remained until migrating southwards from July 2018. D Sentinel-2 true-colour image () of Anak Krakatau pre-collapse overlain movement of the crater from 2008 until the flank collapse, based upon Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 true-colour images 5 (Supplementary 3). Strombolian ejecta are restricted to within the limits of the failure plane. C Sentinel-2 true-colour image () of Anak Krakatau pre-collapse overlain with distributions of Strombolian ejecta between and the flank collapse, based upon Sentinel-2 false-colour images 5. New lavas exclusively accumulated on the SW flank within the limits of the new redefined failure plane. B Sentinel-2 true-colour image () of Anak Krakatau pre-collapse overlain with the distribution of effusive lavas between June and the flank collapse, based upon Sentinel-2 false-colour images 5 (Supplementary 4). Accurately determining parameters and emplacement of the 2018 Anak Krakatau flank collapse provides greater understanding of this event, and will enable improved numerical tsunami modelling, helping elucidate similar processes in contemporary island-arc settings.Ī Map of the Sunda Trench, showing the position of Anak Krakatau at an inflection point in the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath Eurasia. Although island-arc volcanoes are smaller than their counterparts at intraplate ocean-islands 2, 3, they dominate the historical record of tsunamigenic flank collapses, and Anak Krakatau provides a valuable generally applicable analogue. 1A), in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia is arguably the best-observed island-arc volcanic flank collapse. The December 22nd, 2018 flank collapse and tsunami at Anak Krakatau (Fig. As a result, forecasting collapses and mitigating their associated cascading hazards are a major challenge 5.

Although characterising volcanic island flank collapses in the geological record (often 10 s kyr old) and numerically modelling their tsunamis have provided valuable insights into tsunamigenesis 7, 8, there are uncertainties towards determining pre-event bathymetry, precise volumes, failure and emplacement processes, island geometry and tsunami magnitudes are all subject to uncertainties 4. Detailed flank collapse reconstructions are key to understanding their mechanisms, timing and associated tsunami generation, which are essential to better identify the factors controlling failure and improving global monitoring of volcano instability hazards. The event provides a model for lateral collapse scenarios at other arc-volcanic islands showing that rapid island growth can lead to large-scale failure and that even faster rebuilding can obscure pre-existing collapse.įlank collapses at volcanic islands and their associated tsunamis are significant natural hazards 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, but the factors governing volcanic-edifice instability and landslide-emplacement remain incompletely understood. Post-collapse eruptions produced an additional ~0.3 km 3 of tephra, burying the scar and landslide deposit. Our findings are consistent with en-masse lateral collapse with a volume ≥0.175 km 3, resolving several ambiguities in previous reconstructions. To the southwest of the volcano, bathymetric and seismic reflection data reveal a blocky landslide deposit (0.214 ± 0.036 km 3) emplaced over 1.5 km into the adjacent basin.

Combined Synthetic Aperture Radar data and aerial photographs reveal an extensive subaerial failure that bounds pre-event deformation and volcanic products. Here, we present the first high-resolution characterisation of both subaerial and submarine components of the collapse. As demonstrated at Anak Krakatau on December 22 nd, 2018, tsunamis generated by volcanic flank collapse are incompletely understood and can be devastating.

Best submarine simulator for mac -windos